Thames & Kosmos Structural Engineering: Bridges & Skyscrapers handleiding

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Skyscraper Design

Plan view

(from

above)

Loads Acting on a Building

Buildings and skyscrapers must withstand many diﬀerent types

of loads that could pull them down or push them over. Loads

can be divided into two categories: Dead loads and live loads.

Dead loads include the weight of the building itself and all

the permanent things installed in the building. Gravity pulls

these loads downward.

Live loads include the weight of the people, furniture, and

other objects inside the building. The snow load and rain load

— the weight of the snow or water on the roof — are also live

loads.

Some live loads act laterally on the building, instead of pulling downward. The wind load is caused by the wind pushing on

the side of the building. The groundwater and earth around the building’s foundation push laterally on it. And even the load

from occasional earthquakes must be considered when designing a strong, stable building.

Semi-rigid

Frame

Rigid Frame

Frame with

Shear Truss

Frame with

Shear Truss

and Outrigger

Truss

End Channel

Framed Tube

with Interior

Sheer Truss

End Channel

and Middle

Framed Tube

Exterior

Framed Tube

Bundled

Tube

Exterior

Diagonal

Braced Tube

Super

Frame

Approximate

Number of

Floors Possible

Type 1: Rigid

Frame

This is the oldest

type of skyscraper

structural system.

A steel-frame

structure of this

type can rise to a

height of about 30

stories.

Type 2:

Frame with

Shear Truss

By adding trusses

to the frame, the

skyscraper can

be strengthened

to rise to a height

of about 60

stories.

Type 3: End

Channel

Framed Tube

A real innovation in

skyscraper

technology came

when tube systems

started to be used in

the mid-1900s. The

tube system resists

lateral loads by

acting like a giant

cantilever sticking

out from the

ground. It uses

closely spaced

columns around the

outside of the

building.

Type 4: Exterior

Framed Tube, Bundled

Tube, Braced Tube

Many diﬀerent conﬁgurations

of tube systems are used in

today’s skyscrapers to achieve

greater heights, including

bundling many tubes into one

and adding diagonal supports.

Type 5: Super Frame

By the early 2000s, super-tall buildings of 160 or more ﬂoors were

possible using super frames, which have braced frames at the corners

linked together by horizontal multistory trusses every 10 or 20 ﬂoors.

This chart shows ﬁve types of

structural systems used in

skyscrapers and the maximum

number of ﬂoors that can be

achieved with each type.

Skyscraper

Structural

Systems

Gravity LoadsGravity Loads

Snow Load

Lateral Loads

Wind Load

Water and

Earth Pressure

Earthquake

Load

Dead Load

Occupancy Load

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